egemony is useful for textual analysis since media frames are shaped by economic interests, dominant ideologies, government influences, and journalistic norms (Chomsky & Herman, 1988). Media studies scholars have elaborated on Gramsci’s (1971) concept of hegemony in order to contemplate these themes in a less deterministic way.
Hall (1980) asserted that the mass media often reproduce interpretations that serve the interests of the ruling class. The news performs a crucial role in defining events, although this is seen as secondary to primary definers, such as accredited sources in government and other institutions. The media also reinforce a consensual viewpoint by using local idioms and by claiming to voice public opinion (Woollacott, 1982) . Historically, these factors have led to negative media portraits of various nations and movements defined as enemies by the U.S. government.
The propaganda model by Chomsky and Herman (1979) adds that with concentrated ownership and profit-orientated mass media, where advertising is the mass media’s primary source of income, the media rely on information provided by “experts.” The model suggests that the mainstream media commonly frame news and allow debate only within the parameters of elite interests. Gitlin (1980) further explained that those in positions of power do not directly maintain the status quo: “The task is left to writers, journalists, producers, and teachers, bureaucrats, and artists organized within the cultural apparatus as a whole” (p. 254).
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